Read Chemistry

– In this topic, we will discuss general Characteristics of Catalytic Reactions and Promoters. General Characteristics of Catalytic Reactions – Although there are different types of catalytic reactions, the following features or characteristics are common to most of them. (1) A catalyst remains unchanged in mass and chemical composition at …

– In this topic, we will discuss the Fragmentation Patterns in Mass Spectrometry. Fragmentation Patterns in Mass Spectrometry – In addition to the molecular formula, the mass spectrum provides structural information. – An electron with a typical energy of 70 eV (6740 kJ mol or 1610 kcal mol) has far …

– In this topic, we will discuss the Catalysis and The types of catalysis : Homogeneous catalysis – Heterogenous catalysis. What is Catalysis? – Berzelius (1836) realised that there are substances which increase the rate of a reaction without themselves being consumed. – He believed that the function of such …

Collision theory of Reaction rates – According to collision theory, a chemical reaction takes place only by collisions between the reacting molecules. However, not all collisions are effective. – Only a small fraction of the collisions produce a reaction. – The two main conditions for a collision between the reacting …

Determination of the Molecular Formula by Mass Spectrometry – we can Determine the Molecular Formula by Mass Spectrometry and we will discuss : (A) High-Resolution Mass Spectrometry (B) Use of Heavier Isotope Peaks (A) High-Resolution Mass Spectrometry – Although mass spectra usually show the particle masses rounded to the nearest …

Mass spectrometry (MS) provides the molecular weight and valuable information about the molecular formula, using a very small sample. Introduction to Mass Spectrometry – Infrared spectroscopy gives information about the functional groups in a molecule, but it tells little about the size of the molecule or what heteroatoms are present. …

Determination of the order of reaction – There are at least four different methods to determine the order of reaction as follows: Using integrated rate equations Graphical method Using half-life period The Differential method Ostwald’s Isolation method (1) Using integrated rate equations – The reaction under study is performed by …

– In this subject, we will talk about Characteristic Absorptions of Carbonyl Compounds such as Ketones, Aldehydes, Amines, and Acids. Characteristic Absorptions of Carbonyl Compounds – Because it has a large dipole moment, the C=O double bond produces intense infrared stretching absorptions. – Carbonyl groups absorb at frequencies around 1700 …

– In this topic, we will discuss the Characteristic Absorptions of Alcohols and Amines by examples. Characteristic Absorptions of Alcohols and Amines – The O-H bonds of alcohols and the N-H bonds of amines are strong and stiff. – The vibration frequencies of O-H and N-H bonds therefore occur at …

Second order reaction – Let us take a second order reaction of the type 2A ⎯⎯→ products – Suppose the initial concentration of A is a moles liter–1. – If after time t, x moles of A have reacted, the concentration of A is (a – x). – We know …

Infrared Spectroscopy of Hydrocarbons – Hydrocarbons contain only carbon–carbon bonds and carbon–hydrogen bonds. – An infrared spectrum does not provide enough information to identify a structure conclusively (unless an authentic spectrum is available to compare “fingerprints”), but the absorptions of the carbon-carbon and carbon-hydrogen bonds can indicate the presence of …

First order reaction – Let us consider a first order reaction: A → products – Suppose that at the beginning of the reaction (t = 0), the concentration of A is a moles liter–1. – If after time t, x moles of A have changed, the concentration of A is …

– In this subject, we talk about how to Measure the IR Spectrum. Measurement of the IR Spectrum – Infrared spectra can be measured using liquid, solid, or gaseous samples that are placed in the beam of infrared light. – A drop of a liquid can be placed as a …

– In this subject we talk about Molecular Vibrations as introduction to understand IR spectrum Molecular Vibrations – Before discussing characteristic infrared absorptions, it’s helpful to understand some theory about the vibrational energies of molecules. – The following drawing shows how a covalent bond between two atoms acts like a …

– we will discuss the Molecularity of a reaction and the Differences Between Order and Molecularity. Molecularity of a reaction – Chemical reactions may be classed into two types : (a) Elementary reactions (b) Complex reactions – An elementary reaction is a simple reaction which occurs in a single step. …

Esters of Inorganic Acids – In addition to forming esters with carboxylic acids, alcohols form inorganic esters with inorganic acids such as nitric acid, sulfuric acid, and phosphoric acid. – In each type of ester, the alkoxy (-OR) group of the alcohol replaces a hydroxyl group of the acid, with …

The Sulphur system –  Sulphur system is a one-component, four-phase system. – The four phases are: (a) Two solid polymorphic forms : Rhombic Sulphur (SR) Monoclinic Sulphur (SM) (b) Sulphur Liquid (SL) (c) Sulphur Vapour (SV) – All the four phase can be represented by the only chemical individual (sulphur) …

– In this subject we will talk about the Esterification of Alcohols. What are Alcohols? – Alcohols are organic compounds containing hydroxyl (-OH) groups. – They are some of the most common and useful compounds in nature, in industry, and around the house. – The word alcohol is one of …

Unique Reactions of Diols – Unique Reactions of Diols are: (1) The Pinacol Rearrangement (2) Periodic Acid Cleavage of Glycols (1) The Pinacol Rearrangement – Using our knowledge of alcohol reactions, we can explain results that seem strange at first glance. – The following dehydration is an example of the …

Reactions of Alcohols with Thionyl Chloride – Reactions of Alcohols with Thionyl Chloride give alkyl chloride. – Thionyl chloride (SOCl2) is often the best reagent for converting an alcohol to an alkyl chloride. – The by-products (gaseous SO2 and HCl) leave the reaction mixture and ensure there can be no …