Read Chemistry

– In this subject, we will discuss the Isotopic effects: definition, Applications Definition of isotopes Isotopes may be defined as : (1) The atoms of an element that have the same number of protons and different numbers of neutrons are called Isotopes. (2) The atoms of an element that have the …

– In this subject, we will discuss 7 Examples of isotopes Definition of isotopes Isotopes may be defined as : (1) The atoms of an element that have the same number of protons and different number of neutrons are called Isotopes. (2) The atoms of an element that have the same …

– In this subject, we will discuss the Separation of Isotopes by seven methods Separation of Isotopes – Since isotopes have exactly similar chemical properties, their separation by chemical means is out of the question. – Their difference in those physical properties which depend on the mass of the atom …

– In this subject, we will discuss the Identification of Isotopes by Aston’s Mass Spectrograph and Dempster’s Mass Spectrograph Identification of Isotopes – The positive rays produced in a discharge tube consist of nuclei of atoms. – The deflection of positive rays in an electric and magnetic field is proportional …

– In this subject, we will discuss the Isotopes: Definition, representation, Examples What are Isotopes? – Contrary to Dalton’s Atomic theory, all atoms of a given element are not necessarily identical. – Most elements are composed of two or more types of atoms mixed in a fixed proportion. – The …

– In this subject, we will discuss Pressure-volume work – P-V work – the First Law of Thermodynamics Work – Work in thermodynamics is defined as in classical mechanics. – When part of the surroundings exerts a macroscopically measurable force F on matter in the system while this matter moves …

  Equations of State for Ideal gas ** Phenomenological thermodynamics is based on experiment, on measurements that you might make in a lab, garage, or kitchen. ** For example, for any fixed amount of a pure gas, two state variables are pressure, p, and volume, V. Each can be controlled …

  The Relative Stabilities of Cycloalkanes: Ring Strain ** Cycloalkanes do not all have the same relative stability. Experiments have shown that cyclohexane is the most stable cycloalkane and that, in comparison, cyclopropane and cyclobutane are much less stable. This difference in relative stability is due to ring strain, which comprises …

  Conformational Analysis of Butane ** Now let us consider rotation about the C2—C3 bond of butane. The barriers to rotation about the C2—C3 bond in butane are larger than for rotation about the C—C bond in ethane, but still not large enough to prevent the rotations that lead to …

– In this subject, we will discuss the Sigma Bond and Bond Rotation – Two groups bonded by only a single bond can undergo rotation about that bond for each other: – The temporary molecular shapes that result from such a rotation are called conformations of the molecule. – Each possible structure …

– In this subject, we will discuss Calculating the pH of Weak Acid and Base Solutions Total and partial ionization – When an acid or base is dissolved in water, it will dissociate, or ionize According to the equations:  – The amount of ionization is dependent on the strength of …

– In this subject, we will discuss the Free Download Analytical Chemistry book (7th edition) by Gary D.Christian Introduction to Analytical Chemistry book What is Analytical chemistry? – Analytical chemistry is concerned with the chemical characterization of matter, both qualitative and quantitative. – It is important in nearly every aspect …

– In this subject, we will discuss the pH Scale: Definition, formula, Notes, Solved problems  pH Scale – The concentration of H+ or OH− in aqueous solution can vary over extremely wide ranges, from 1 M or greater to 10−14 M or less. – To construct a plot of H+ concentration against some variable …

– In this subject, we will discuss Acid-Base Equilibrium in Water. Acid-Base Equilibrium in Water – When an acid or base is dissolved in water, it will dissociate, or ionize According to the equations:  – The amount of ionization is dependent on the strength of the acid or the base. …

– In this subject, we will discuss Acid-Base Theories: Arrhenius, Lewis, and Bronsted-Lowry Theory Acid-base Theories – Several acid–base theories have been proposed to explain or classify acidic and basic properties of substances. – You are probably most familiar with the Arrhenius theory, which applies only to water. – Other …

– In this subject, we will discuss The Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics Introduction to Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics – Thermodynamics is based on a few statements called laws that have broad applications to physical and chemical systems. – As simple as these laws are, it took many years of observation …

– In this subject, we will discuss The Equipment and Manipulations Associated with weighing. Weighing Equipment and Manipulations – The mass of many solids changes with humidity because they tend to absorb weighable amounts of moisture. – This effect is especially pronounced when a large surface area is exposed, as …

– In this subject, we will discuss the Discovery of the Atom, Nucleus, electron, Proton, and Neutron Definition of atom – Based on Dalton’s atomic theory, we can define an atom as the basic unit of an element that can enter into a chemical combination. – Dalton imagined an atom …

– In this subject, we will discuss the System, Surroundings, and State: Definition – Overview What are the System and  Surroundings? – Imagine you have a container holding some material of interest to you, as in the Figure below. – The container does a good job of separating the material …

– In this subject, we will discuss the Analytical Balance: Definition, Principle, Types, Examples – In most analyses, an analytical balance must be used to measure masses with high accuracy. – Less accurate laboratory balances are also used for mass measurements when the demands for reliability are not critical. What …