Meso Compounds – Compounds that are achiral even though they have asymmetric carbon atoms are called meso compounds. – The (2R,3S) isomer of 2,3-dibromobutane is a meso compound. – most meso compounds have this kind of symmetric structure, with two similar halves of the molecule having opposite configurations. – In …
Read More »Chiral Compounds without Asymmetric Atom
Chiral Compounds without Asymmetric Atoms – Most chiral organic compounds have at least one asymmetric carbon atom. – Some compounds are chiral because they have another asymmetric atom, such as phosphorus, sulfur, or nitrogen, serving as a chirality center. – Some compounds are chiral even though they have no asymmetric …
Read More »What is Diastereomers?
Diastereomers – We have defined stereoisomers as isomers whose atoms are bonded together in the same order but differ in how the atoms are directed in space. – We have also considered enantiomers (mirror-image isomers) in detail. – All other stereoisomers are classified as diastereomers, which are defined as stereoisomers …
Read More »Drawing Fischer Projections
In this subject we will discuss How to draw Fischer projections Introduction to Fischer Projections – We have been using dashed lines and wedges to indicate perspective in drawing the stereochemistry of asymmetric carbon atoms. – When we draw molecules with several asymmetric carbons, perspective drawings become time consuming and …
Read More »Racemic Mixtures
Racemic Mixtures – Suppose we had a mixture of equal amounts of (+)-butan-2-ol and (-)-butan-2-ol – The (+) isomer would rotate polarized light clockwise with a specific rotation of +13.5o ,and the isomer (-) would rotate the polarized light counterclockwise by exactly the same amount. – We would observe a …
Read More »Biological Discrimination of Enantiomers
Biological Discrimination of Enantiomers – If the direction of rotation of polarized light were the only difference between enantiomers, one might ask whether the difference would be important. – Biological systems commonly distinguish between enantiomers, and two enantiomers may have totally different biological properties. – In fact, any chiral probe …
Read More »Optical Activity in Organic Compounds
– Rotation of the plane of polarized light is called optical activity, and substances that rotate the plane of polarized light are said to be optically active. – There are alot of Organic Compounds have optical activity Introduction to Optical activity Mirror-image molecules have nearly identical physical properties. Compare the …
Read More »(R) and (S) of Asymmetric Carbon Atoms
(R) and (S) Nomenclature of Asymmetric Carbon Atoms – Alanine is one of the amino acids found in common proteins. – Alanine has an asymmetric carbon atom, and it exists in two enantiomeric forms. – These mirror images are different, and this difference is reflected in their biochemistry. – Only …
Read More »Chirality in Organic Chemistry
What is Chirality? – What is the difference between your left hand and your right hand? They look similar, yet a left-handed glove does not fit the right hand. – The same principle applies to your feet. They look almost identical, yet the left shoe fits painfully on the right …
Read More »Laws of Osmotic Pressure
Laws of Osmotic Pressure – From a study of the experimental results obtained by Pfeffer, van’t Hoff showed that for dilute solutions : (a) The osmotic pressure of a solution at a given temperature is directly proportional to its concentration. (b) The osmotic pressure of a solution of a given …
Read More »Theories of Osmosis
Theories of Osmosis – Here we will discuss some theories of osmosis. – Several theories have been advanced to explain the action of a semipermeable membrane. – It is probable that the mechanism depends on the particular type of membrane used and also on the nature of the solute and …
Read More »Determination of osmotic pressure
Determination of osmotic pressure – The osmotic pressure of a given solution can be determined experimentally by the methods detailed below. – The apparatus used for the purpose is often referred to as osmometer. (1) Pfeffer’s Method – The apparatus used by Pfeffer (1877) for determination of osmotic pressure is …
Read More »What is Osmosis and Osmotic Pressure?
Diffusion and Osmosis – Just as a gas can diffuse into vacant space or another gas, a solute can diffuse from a solution into the pure solvent. – If you pour a saturated aqueous solution of potassium permanganate with the help of a thistle funnel into a beaker containing water, …
Read More »Measurement of freezing point Depression
The subject of Measurement of freezing point Depression will be discused FREEZING POINT DEPRESSION Relation between Depression of Freezing point and Lowering of Vapour-pressure – The vapour pressure of a pure liquid changes with temperature as shown by the curve ABC, in Fig. – There is a sharp break at …
Read More »Measurement of boiling point elevation
MEASUREMENT OF BOILING POINT ELEVATION – There are several methods available for the measurement of the elevation of boiling point. – Some of these are outlined below : (1) Landsberger-Walker Method This method was introduced by Landsberger and modified by Walker. Apparatus: – The apparatus used in this method is …
Read More »Measurement of lowering of vapour pressure
MEASUREMENT OF LOWERING OF VAPOUR PRESSURE (1) Barometric Method – Raoult measured the individual vapour pressure of a liquid and then the solution by this method. – He introduced the liquid or the solution into Toricellian vacuum of a barometer tube and measured the depression of the mercury level. – …
Read More »Lowering of vapour pressure- Raoult’s law
In this subject we will restrict our discussion to Raoult’s Law COLLIGATIVE PROPERTIES – Dilute solutions containing non-volatile solute exhibit the following properties : (1) Lowering of the Vapour Pressure (2) Elevation of the Boiling Point (3) Depression of the Freezing Point (4) Osmotic Pressure – The essential feature of …
Read More »Solutions of solid substances in liquids
SOLUTIONS OF SOLIDS IN LIQUIDS – Solutions of a solid substance in a solvent are most commonly met with. – The process of solution of a solid substance in a solvent is explained by the electrical forces operating between the molecules or ions of the solute and the molecules of …
Read More »Solutions of liquids in liquids
SOLUTIONS OF LIQUIDS IN LIQUIDS – The solutions of liquids in liquids may be divided into three classes as follows: – We will now proceed to consider the more important properties of these three classes of solutions. SOLUBILITY OF COMPLETELY MISCIBLE LIQUIDS – Liquids like alcohol and ether mix in …
Read More »Henry’s Law – Solutions of gases in gases
The subject of Solutions of gases in gases – Henry’s Law will be discused Types of Solutions – The common solutions that we come across are those where the solute is a solid and the solvent is a liquid. – In fact, substance in any three states of matter (solid, …
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