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Zeroth law of thermodynamics – The zeroth law of thermodynamics is a generalized statement about bodies in contact at thermal equilibrium and is the basis for the concept of temperature. – The most common definition of the zeroth law of thermodynamics is: If two thermodynamic systems are in thermal equilibrium …

– In this topic, we will discuss The Chemical Potential and Variation of Chemical Potential with Temperature and Pressure. Partial Molar Properties – We have so far studied the thermodynamic systems in which there was a change in thermodynamic properties with the variation of one or more state variables. – …

– In this topic, we will discuss The autoxidation of Ethers. What are Ethers? Ethers are compounds of formula R-O-R, , where R , and R, may be alkyl groups or aryl (benzene ring) groups. – Like alcohols, ethers are related to water, with alkyl groups replacing the hydrogen atoms. …

– In general, it may be stated that each substance in a given state has a tendency to escape from that state and this escaping tendency denoted by f is called fugacity. Fugacity and Activity – It has already been pointed out that equation ΔG = RT loge P2/P1 is applicable …

– In this topic, we will discuss the Cleavage of Ethers by HBr and HI  Cleavage of Ethers by HBr and HI – Unlike alcohols, ethers are not commonly used as synthetic intermediates because they do not undergo many reactions. This unreactivity makes ethers attractive as solvents. Even so, ethers …

Van’t Hoff isotherm – The van’t Hoff isotherm gives the net work that can be obtained from a gaseous reactant at constant temperature when both the reactants and the products are at suitable arbitrary pressures. – It can be derived by using the “equilibrium box” which is a theoretical device …

– In this topic, we will discuss Clausius-Clapeyron equation – Derivation with Applications. The Clapeyron equation – A useful thermodynamic relation which gives us important information about a system  onsisting of any two phases of a single substance in chemical equilibrium is the Clapeyron equation. – It is derived from …

Gibbs Helmholtz Equations – These are two equations derived by J.W. Gibbs and H.Von Helmholtz and are known as Gibbs Helmholtz equations. – One equation can be expressed in terms of changes in free energy (ΔG) and enthalpy (ΔH), while the other can be expressed in terms of changes in …

Globular Hemeproteins – Hemeproteins are a group of specialized proteins that contain heme as a tightly bound prosthetic group.  – The role of the heme group is dictated by the environment created by the three-dimensional structure of the protein. – For example, the heme group of a cytochrome functions as …

– In this topic, we will discuss The Carnot Cycle : Definition, Theorem, Efficiency, Derivation and Sovled problems. The Carnot cycle – In 1824 Sadi Carnot proposed a theoretical heat engine to show that the efficiency was based upon the temperatures between which it operated. – Carnot’s imaginary engine could …

Synthesis of Ethers – In this topic, we will discuss 6 methods for Synthesis of Ethers as follows: 1. Ethers by Intermolecular Dehydration of Alcohols – Two alcohol molecules can form an ether by loss of water through an acid-catalyzed substitution reaction. – This reaction competes with the formation of …

Chemical Formula – The chemical formula for a substance shows its chemical composition. – This represents the elements present as well as the ratio in which the atoms of the elements occur. – The formula for a single atom is the same as the symbol for the element. Thus, Na …

Definition of entropy – Entropy is a thermodynamic state quantity that is a measure of the randomness or disorder of the molecules of the system. – The symbol of entropy is S, while the change in disorder accompanying a process from start to completion is represented by ΔS.  – The entropy …

– In this topic, we will talk about Protein Misfolding. Protein Misfolding – Protein folding is a complex, trial-and-error process that can sometimes result in improperly folded molecules. – These misfolded proteins are usually tagged and degraded within the cell. However, this quality control system is not perfect, and intracellular …

– In this topic, we will discuss the Williamson Ether Synthesis : Mechanism, Examples and Solved problems. Williamson Ether Synthesis – We have already seen most of the common methods for synthesizing ethers. – We review them at this time, looking more closely at the mechanisms to see which methods …

Democritus’s ideas about atoms – The Greek philosopher Democritus (470–400 BC) suggested that all matter is composed of tiny, discrete, indivisible particles that he called atoms. – His ideas, based entirely on philosophical speculation rather than experimental evidence, were rejected for 2000 years. – By the late 1700s, scientists began …

– In this topic, we will discuss the Macromolecules : Definition and Molecular Weight What are Macromolecules? – Colloidal solutions are formed by aggregation of atoms or molecules to give particles of colloidal size. – Macromolecules are substances which are themselves composed of giant molecules and dissolve in a solvent …

– In the last topic in biochemistry in our website, we talked about: Primary structure of Protein , Secondary Structure of Protein. now we will discuss Tertiary structure of globular proteins. Tertiary structure of globular proteins – The primary structure of a polypeptide chain determines its tertiary structure. – “Tertiary” …

Spectroscopy of Ethers – Here we will discuss Spectroscopy of Ethers: IR Spectroscopy, Mass Spectroscopy, 13C NMR amd 1H NMR.  Infrared Spectroscopy of Ethers – Infrared spectra do not show obvious or reliable absorptions for ethers. – Most ethers give a moderate to strong C-O stretch around 1000 to 1200 …

Difference Between Heat and Temperature – Heat is one form of energy. – Many forms of energy can be interconverted and that in chemical processes, chemical energy is converted to heat energy or vice versa. – The amount of heat a process uses (endothermic) or gives off (exothermic) can tell …