Organic Chemistry

– In this subject, we will discuss Infrared Spectroscopy: Instrumental Method for Detecting Functional Groups. Infrared Spectroscopy – Infrared spectroscopy (IR spectroscopy ): is a simple, rapid, and nondestructive instrumental technique that can give evidence for the presence of various functional groups. – If you had a sample of unknown …

– In this subject, we will discuss bond Breaking and Bond Making in Organic Compounds. Bond Breaking and Bond Making  – Having now learned how to write and identify some common kinds of organic reactions, we can turn to a discussion of reaction mechanisms. – A reaction mechanism is a …

– In this subject, we will discuss the Safety in the laboratory Safety in The Laboratory – There is necessarily a degree of risk associated with any work in a chemical laboratory. – Accidents can and do happen. – Strict adherence to the following rules will go far toward preventing …

– In this subject, we will discuss the general Types of Organic Reactions Types of Organic Reactions – Like other compounds, organic molecules undergo acid-base and oxidation-reduction reactions. – Organic molecules also undergo substitution, elimination, and addition reactions. (1) Substitution Reactions – Substitution reaction is a reaction in which an …

– In this subject, we will discuss Writing Equations for Organic Reactions. Writing Equations for Organic Reactions (1) Like other reactions, equations for organic reactions are usually drawn with a single reaction arrow (→) between the starting material and product, but other conventions make these equations look different from those …

Solubility of Organic Compounds – Intermolecular forces are of primary importance in explaining the solubility of substances. – Dissolution of a solid in a liquid is, in many respects, like the melting of a solid. – The orderly crystal structure of the solid is destroyed, and the result is the …

– In this subject, we will discuss the Intermolecular Forces in Organic compounds Intermolecular Forces in Organic Compounds – The forces that act between molecules are not as strong as those between ions, but they account for the fact that even completely nonpolar molecules can exist in liquid and solid …

    ** So far, we have said little about one of the most obvious characteristics of organic compounds— that is, their physical state or phase. Whether a particular substance is a solid, or a liquid, or a gas would certainly be one of the first observations that we would …

– In this subject, we will discuss the Polar and Nonpolar Molecules. Dipole moment – The dipole moment is a physical property that can be measured experimentally. – It is defined as the product of the magnitude of the charge in electrostatic units (esu) and the distance that separates them …

– In this subject, we will discuss the Polar Covalent Bond and Dipole moment. Polar Covalent Bonds – Covalent bonds form by sharing of electrons between atoms of similar electronegativities to achieve the configuration of a noble gas. – If we have a compound such as LiF in which the …

  How To Predict Molecular Geometry: VSEPR model   ** We can predict the arrangement of atoms in molecules and ions on the basis of a relatively simple idea called the valence shell electron pair repulsion (VSEPR) model. ** We apply the VSEPR model in the following way: (1) We …

  Important concepts in Hybridization    (1) An atomic orbital (AO) corresponds to a region of space about the nucleus of a single atom where there is a high probability of finding an electron. Atomic orbitals called s orbitals are spherical; those called p orbitals are like two almost-tangent spheres. Orbitals can hold …

The Structure of  Ethyne (Acetylene): sp Hybridization ** Hydrocarbons in which two carbon atoms share three pairs of electrons between them, and are thus bonded by a triple bond, are called alkynes. The two simplest alkynes are ethyne and propyne.   ** Ethyne, a compound that is also called acetylene, …

  The Structure of Ethene (Ethylene): sp2 Hybridization   ** The carbon atoms of many of the molecules that we have considered so far have used their four valence electrons to form four single covalent (sigma) bonds to four other atoms. ** We find, however, that many important organic compounds …

    ** The (s) and (p) orbitals used in the quantum mechanical description of the carbon atom, were based on calculations for hydrogen atoms. These simple (s) and (p) orbitals do not, when taken alone, provide a satisfactory model for the tetravalent–tetrahedral carbon of methane. ** However, a satisfactory …

  Introduction to Resonance (Resonance in carbonate ion (CO32-)   ** Often more than one equivalent Lewis structure can be written for a molecule or ion. Consider, for example, the carbonate ion (CO32-). We can write three different but equivalent structures, 1–3:   ** Notice two important features of these …

      ** Organic chemists use a variety of formats to write structural formulas. ** Structural Formulas are written by: (1) Ball-and-stick model (2) Electron-dot formula (lewis structure) (3) Dash formula (4) Condensed formula (5) Bond-line formula ** Examples of these types of structural formulas are shown in  the …

– In this subject, we will discuss the Formal Charge: Definition, Formula, Calculation, Examples Formal Charge and How To Calculate – Many Lewis structures are incomplete until we decide whether any of their atoms have a formal charge. – Calculating the formal charge on an atom in a Lewis structure …

– In this subject, we will discuss the Lewis Structures: Definition, Overview, Structural Formula, Examples Definition of Lewis structures – A Lewis structure is a structural representation of a molecule where dots are used to show electron positions around the atoms and lines or dot pairs represent covalent bonds between …

  The Relative Stabilities of Cycloalkanes: Ring Strain ** Cycloalkanes do not all have the same relative stability. Experiments have shown that cyclohexane is the most stable cycloalkane and that, in comparison, cyclopropane and cyclobutane are much less stable. This difference in relative stability is due to ring strain, which comprises …