Organic Chemistry

Chiral Compounds without Asymmetric Atoms – Most chiral organic compounds have at least one asymmetric carbon atom. – Some compounds are chiral because they have another asymmetric atom, such as phosphorus, sulfur, or nitrogen, serving as a chirality center. – Some compounds are chiral even though they have no asymmetric …

Diastereomers – We have defined stereoisomers as isomers whose atoms are bonded together in the same order but differ in how the atoms are directed in space. – We have also considered enantiomers (mirror-image isomers) in detail. – All other stereoisomers are classified as diastereomers, which are defined as stereoisomers …

In this subject we will discuss How to draw Fischer projections Introduction to Fischer Projections – We have been using dashed lines and wedges to indicate perspective in drawing the stereochemistry of asymmetric carbon atoms. – When we draw molecules with several asymmetric carbons, perspective drawings become time consuming and …

Racemic Mixtures – Suppose we had a mixture of equal amounts of (+)-butan-2-ol and (-)-butan-2-ol – The (+) isomer would rotate polarized light clockwise with a specific rotation of +13.5o ,and the isomer (-) would rotate the polarized light counterclockwise by exactly the same amount. – We would observe a …

Biological Discrimination of Enantiomers – If the direction of rotation of polarized light were the only difference between enantiomers, one might ask whether the difference would be important. – Biological systems commonly distinguish between enantiomers, and two enantiomers may have totally different biological properties. – In fact, any chiral probe …

– Rotation of the plane of polarized light is called optical activity, and substances that rotate the plane of polarized light are said to be optically active. – There are alot of Organic Compounds have optical activity Introduction to Optical activity Mirror-image molecules have nearly identical physical properties. Compare the …

(R) and (S) Nomenclature of Asymmetric Carbon Atoms – Alanine is one of the amino acids found in common proteins. – Alanine has an asymmetric carbon atom, and it exists in two enantiomeric forms. – These mirror images are different, and this difference is reflected in their biochemistry. – Only …

What is Chirality? – What is the difference between your left hand and your right hand? They look similar, yet a left-handed glove does not fit the right hand. – The same principle applies to your feet. They look almost identical, yet the left shoe fits painfully on the right …

– In this subject, we will discuss the Substituted Cyclohexane: Axial and Equatorial Hydrogen Groups Substituted Cyclohexane: Axial and Equatorial Hydrogen Groups – The six-membered ring is the most common ring found among nature’s organic molecules. – For this reason, we shall give it special attention. – We have already …

– In this subject, we will discuss Conformations of Cyclohexane: The Chair and the Boat Conformations of Cyclohexane: The Chair and the Boat Cyclohexane is more stable than the other cycloalkanes we have discussed, and it has several conformations that are important for us to consider. (1) The most stable conformation …

– In this subject, we will discuss the Acidity Differences between Alcohols and Carboxylic Acids Acidity of Carboxylic Acids and Alcohols – Carboxylic acids are weak acids, typically having pKa values in the range of 3–5. – Alcohols, by comparison, have pKa values in the range of 15–18 and essentially do …

– In this subject, we will discuss the Hybridization: Definition, Types, Rules, and Examples – While the formation of simple molecules could be explained adequately by the overlap of atomic orbitals, the formation of molecules of Be, B, and C present problems of greater magnitude having no solution with the …

– In this subject, we will discuss the Relationships between Structure and Acidity. – The strength of a Brønsted–Lowry acid depends on the extent to which a proton can be separated from it and transferred to a base. – Removing the proton involves breaking a bond to the proton, and …

– In this subject, we will discuss the Thermodynamics of Organic Compounds Thermodynamics of Organic Compounds – For a reaction to be practical, the equilibrium must favor the products, and the reaction rate must be fast enough to form them in a reasonable time. – These two conditions depend on …

– In this subject, we will discuss How to Predict the Outcome of acid-base reaction. How To Predict the Outcome of acid-base reaction – The following table gives the approximate pKa values for a range of representative compounds. – While you probably will not be expected to memorize all of the …

– In this subject, we will discuss the Lewis acid-base theory and Lewis Acids and Lewis Bases  Lewis Acids and Lewis Bases – In 1923 G. N. Lewis proposed a theory that significantly broadened the understanding of acids and bases. – As we go along we shall find that an …

– In this subject, we will discuss the Bond Dissociation Energy: Definition, Equation, Problems Bond Dissociation Energy  – Bond breaking can be quantified using the bond dissociation energy. – The bond dissociation energy is the energy needed to homolytically cleave a covalent bond. – The energy absorbed or released in …

– In this subject, we will discuss How to use Curved Arrows in illustrating Reactions. How to use Curved Arrows in illustrating reactions – Up to this point, we have not indicated how bonding changes occur in the reactions we have presented, but this can easily be done using curved-arrow …

– In this subject, we will discuss How to interpret an IR spectrum without any Knowledge of the structure How to interpret IR Spectrum without any Knowledge of the structure  – IR spectroscopy is an incredibly powerful tool for functional group identification, as we have seen in the preceding subjects. …

Interpreting IR Spectra – IR spectra contain a wealth of information about the structures of compounds. – We show some of the information that can be gathered from the spectra of octane and methylbenzene (commonly called toluene) in Figs.1 and 2. – In this subject, we shall learn how to …