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  Infrared Spectroscopy ** Infrared (IR) spectroscopy is a simple, rapid, and nondestructive instrumental technique that can give evidence for the presence of various functional groups. If you had a sample of unknown identity, among the first things you would do is obtain an infrared spectrum, along with determining its …

Polar Covalent Bonds   ** In the H2or Cl2 molecule, the two electrons constituting the covalent bond are equally shared by the two identical nuclei. Due to even distribution of (+) and (–) charge, the two bonded atoms remain electrically neutral. Such a bond is called nonpolar covalent bond. ** …

  Hydrogen Bonding – (H-Bonding)   ** When hydrogen (H) is covalently bonded to a highly electronegative atom X (O, N, F), the shared electron pair is pulled so close to X that a strong dipole results   ** Since the shared pair is removed farthest from H atom, its …

Co-ordinate Covalent bond   ** In a normal covalent bond, each of the two bonded atoms contributes one electron to make the shared pair. ** In some cases, a covalent bond is formed when both the electrons are supplied entirely by one atom. Such a bond is called co-ordinate covalent …

Covalent Bond   ** The electron transfer theory could not explain the bonding in molecules such as H2, O2, Cl2 etc., and in organic molecules, that had no ions. ** It was G.N. Lewis who suggested that two atoms could achieve stable 2 or 8 electrons in the outer shell by …

  Ionic Bond   ** This type of bond is established by transfer of an electron from one atom to another. ** Let us consider a general case when an atom A has one electron in the valence shell and another atom B has seven electrons. A has one electron …

  Bond Breaking and Bond Making   ** Having now learned how to write and identify some common kinds of organic reactions, we can turn to a discussion of reaction mechanism. **  A reaction mechanism is a detailed description of how bonds are broken and formed as a starting material …

  Chemical Equilibrium   ** Many reactions used in analytical chemistry never result in complete conversion of reactants to products. Instead, they proceed to a state of chemical equilibrium in which the ratio of concentrations of reactants and products is constant. ** Equilibrium- constant expressions are algebraic equations that describe …

  Chemical Bond   ** Molecules of chemical substances are made of two or more atoms joined together by some force, acting between them. This force which results from the interaction between the various atoms that go to form a stable molecule, is referred to as a Chemical Bond. ** A …

    Water is the most plentiful solvent on Earth, is easily purified, and is not toxic. It is, therefore, widely used as a medium for chemical analyses. Classifying Solutions of Electrolytes   ** Most of the solutes we will discuss are electrolytes, which form ions when dissolved in water …