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  Equations of State for Ideal gas ** Phenomenological thermodynamics is based on experiment, on measurements that you might make in a lab, garage, or kitchen. ** For example, for any fixed amount of a pure gas, two state variables are pressure, p, and volume, V. Each can be controlled …

  The Relative Stabilities of Cycloalkanes: Ring Strain ** Cycloalkanes do not all have the same relative stability. Experiments have shown that cyclohexane is the most stable cycloalkane and that, in comparison, cyclopropane and cyclobutane are much less stable. This difference in relative stability is due to ring strain, which comprises …

  Conformational Analysis of Butane ** Now let us consider rotation about the C2—C3 bond of butane. The barriers to rotation about the C2—C3 bond in butane are larger than for rotation about the C—C bond in ethane, but still not large enough to prevent the rotations that lead to …

    Two groups bonded by only a single bond can undergo rotation about that bond with respect to each other: ** The temporary molecular shapes that result from such a rotation are called conformations of the molecule.   ** Each possible structure is called a conformer.   ** An analysis of the …

  Total  and partial ionization ** When an acid or base is dissolved in water, it will dissociate, or ionize According to the equations:  ** The amount of ionization being dependent on the strength of the acid or the base.  ** A “strong” electrolyte is completely dissociated, while a “weak” electrolyte is partially …

  Introduction WHAT IS ANALYTICAL CHEMISTRY?       Analytical chemistry is concerned with the chemical characterization of matter, both qualitative and quantitative. It is important in nearly every aspect of our lives because chemicals make up everything we use.   This text deals with the principles and techniques of quantitative …

  pH Scale ** The concentration of H+ or OH− in aqueous solution can vary over extremely wide ranges, from 1 M or greater to 10−14 M or less. ** To construct a plot of H+ concentration against some variable would be very difficult if the concentration changed from, say, 10−1 M to 10−13 M. This …

  Acid–Base Equilibrium in Water ** When an acid or base is dissolved in water, it will dissociate, or ionize According to the equations:  ** The amount of ionization being dependent on the strength of the acid or the base.  ** A “strong” electrolyte is completely dissociated, while a “weak” …

    ** Several acid–base theories have been proposed to explain or classify acidic and basic properties of substances. ** You are probably most familiar with the Arrhenius theory, which is applicable only to water.   ** Other theories are more general and are applicable to other solvents or even …

  Introduction ** Thermodynamics is based on a few statements called laws that have broad application to physical and chemical systems. ** As simple as these laws are, it took many years of observation and experimentation before they were formulated and recognized as scientific laws.   ** Three such statements …

    ** The mass of many solids changes with humidity because they tend to absorb weighable amounts of moisture. ** This effect is especially pronounced when a large surface area is exposed, as with a reagent chemical or a sample that has been ground to a fine powder. In …

  Definition of a tom ** On the basis of Dalton’s atomic theory, we can define an atom as the basic unit of an element that can enter into chemical combination. ** Dalton imagined an atom that was both extremely small and indivisible. However, a series of investigations that began in the 1850s and …

  What is the System and  Surroundings ? ** Imagine you have a container holding some material of interest to you, as in Figure  blow. ** The container does a good job of separating the material from everything else.   ** Imagine, too, that you want to make measurements of …

  In most analyses, an analytical balance must be used to measure masses with high accuracy. Less accurate laboratory balances are also used for mass measurements when the demands for reliability are not critical. Types of Analytical Balances What is An analytical balance ? ** An analytical balance is an …

  What is Cycloalkanes? ** Saturated cyclic hydrocarbons are called cycloalkanes, or alicyclic (aliphatic cyclic) compounds, and have the general formula (CH2)n or CnH2n.  ** Cycloalkanes are named by adding “cyclo” before the parent name of alkane.   ** Substituted cycloalkanes are named by rules similar to those for open chain …